Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders

Introduction Child sexual assault/abuse (CSA) falls under the larger context of child abuse. An act qualifies to be child sexual abuse when for purposes of stimulation an adult or older juvenile engages in an activity that can be deemed sexual. Within the above-defined context, child sexual abuse is takes numerous forms. It includes exposure of children to pornographic material or using juveniles in the production of materials with adult content. It may also include physical contact and exposure of juveniles’ genitals.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Additionally, it may include coercion or pressuring a juvenile into engaging in sexual acts, mild o otherwise with or without her/his consent. Additionally, CSA includes selling if children sexual services and pressuring a child to engage in sexual act ivity with or without her/his consent and regardless of the outcome. According to Tracy (2008, p. 56) child sexual abuse is especially complicated because of the psychological impacts it has on the victims. The effects of child sexual abuse include but not limited to, low self-esteem, nightmares, insomnia, and fear of the things that are associated with or that remind the child of the abuse, sexual dysfunction, fatalities, pain, anxiety and depression. Others include posttraumatic stress order, mental illnesses that include a wide range of personality disorders and suicidal thoughts. In some cases, sexually abused children grow up to become abusers themselves. One of the most consistent characteristics of child sex abuse in many researches is the fact that the abusers are close people who are normally trusted by the child. Strangers do account for a significant portion of the abusers but over 80% of the molesters are family members and friends including baby sitters, family friends, and neighbors (Hunter, J.A et al., 2003, p. 276). The problem is widely prevalent and it’s believed statistics have not yet effectively captured the true picture. Many cases still go unreported owing to the shame and guilt that is associated with it. Estimates show that close to 15% of men and 25% of women in the United States did experience sexual molestation when they were children. Causes of child abuse are as complex as the problem itself. It’s important to note that most offenders act on their own. However, the extent to which operations of the criminal justice system and the failure of the social justice system cannot be overlooked when examining the causes of the problem.Advertising Looking for research paper on administrative law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The widely prevalent vice of sexual assault against children has reached alarming rates. It has therefore necessitated the need to come up with a new approach using sociology, law, psychology, and ethics to find a lasting solution that will help eradicate the vice besides the existing legal mechanisms. An already existsing mechanism that draws information from the mentioned disciplines is doing a good job. However, there is no doubt that there needs to be an overhaul to the established strategies of combating child sexual abuse. In the US, the criminal justice system is closely linked to the social justice system through the constitution. Child sexual offenders are accorded rights through established mechanisms that are expected to help their reintegration to the community. This approach has however fallen short of reducing child sexual abuse by the levels envisioned. That is why it’s important to consider drastic measures that ill curtail child sexual offender rights and basic liberties. The main point behind this move is to rid society of the pedophiles and deter would be offenders. The harsh sentences and measures will deny CSA offenders the basic rights that prisoners are accorded and will ensure CSA offenders express genuine remorse and desire to change and get reintegrated to the community. Most of the measures entail both community and legal systems that incorporate elements of the legal systems and healthcare that CSA offender will be accorded. It will leave them little maneuver to use the existing legal loopholes to secure freedom. The measures are the resolutions that will discussed in greater detail in the last section of this paper. Owing to the fact that the mechanisms that have been put in place seem to be overwhelmed, it’s important to consider establishing a parallel system that addresses all issues in the social and criminal justice systems that help in the reduction of the instances of the vice. The legal justice system supersedes the other systems and in a way it determines how they operate. It’s therefore imperative that the legal system incorporates sociology, law, psychology, ethics measures that will address the issue. The epitome of this paper will be a proposal of a comprehensive solution to the problem of child sexual abuse incorporating all the elements mentioned above.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Definition of terms Throughout the paper, CSA will be used to refer to child sexual abuse. Additionally, the terms sexual abuse and sexual battering will be used repeatedly and will stand to have the same meaning in this context. Incidence and demographic characteristics According to a Department of Health and Human Services report to congress in 2006, the prevalence of child sexual abuse has experiences a significant drop compared to where it was ten years earlier. The report titled National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect concluded that report ed CSA crimes had shown a decline of 38%. In 1993, the CSA cases stood slightly over 217000. The number had dropped to slightly over 135000 in 2006, according to community professionals and other stakeholders. The report however cites lack of reporting from victims and close members of the family as still highly rampant. Close to 70% of the cases are unreported especially when the abuse is going on. Despite the apparent drop in the cases of CSA, it’s important to bear in mind that the number of unreported cases are higher than the reported cases. Therefore the picture painted by the report can easily be changed if all factors were taken into account (Hunter et al., 2003, p. 276). The frequency with children are sexually abused is not clearly known because the vice i often hidden. A report by (Hanson, R.F., et al., 1999, p. 67) says that one in three girls and one in seven boys are likely to be abused in their childhood. The prevalence of the voice is also captured by the orga nization Stop It Now where in a telephone poll found out that 29% of women and 14% of me who were surveyed reported to have been sexually abused as a children. In 2006, 78,000 cases of CSA were reported to authorities and substantiated. This however represents 12%-30% of the cases that are reported. The majority of the cases are not reported. This therefore translates to between 260,000-650,000 cases of CSA in any given year. An important point to note and that is indicative of social trends as far as CSA is concerned is the fact that CSA found to be common in all racial backgrounds, religions, ages and ethnic groups and social economic levels.Advertising Looking for research paper on administrative law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Many reports point to the fact that the victims of CSA know their attackers. In fact 93% of victims personally know the person(s) that commit the abuse, according to Douglas Finkelhor (2005, p. 14) 47% of the abusers are family of extend family members while 85% of the time the children are bused close member of the family or friends in general. Offenders once caught and punished or rehabilitated, show signs of reduced likelihood of committing the offense again. CSA offenders who have been held accountable for their crimes show a high rate of recidivism. The rates for recidivism range between 15-20% without treatment while it falls to as low as 12% in cases where the perpetrators are held accountable and accorded treatment (Hanson et al, 2002, p. 28). It’s important to note that treatment is quite effective in rehabilitating the offenders hence it will form one of the solution incorporated to the expanded mechanism later on in this paper. Another interesting statistical tren d about CSA is commission of CSA by other children or juvenile offenders. Whereas adults commit the bulk of the offences of child sexual abuse, some reports have identified a consistent pattern where up to 50% of CSA offenders are under the age of eighteen years (Hunter et al, 2003, p.13). When these young adults commit these crimes, it automatically makes them juvenile offenders, which also are captured in the title of this paper. Failure to accord effective rehabilitation and treatment to juvenile offenders may result in the juveniles themselves becoming abusers in adulthood. For instance, according to Hunter Becker (1998, p. 20), 20-50% of teenagers who have committed CSA were in their childhood sexually abused. It’s therefore safe to conclude that a majority of juvenile offenders have in some way been victims of CSA. That is why acknowledgement and accordance of effective treatment to these children is necessary to prevent reoccurrence in future. Many adults especially t hose that are parents are not well informed to detect when children have been sexually abused. That is 88% of all CSA cases are never reported to the authorities (Hanson et al, 1999, p.259). There is need therefore of rolling out program that will target parents and other adults to educate them in ways of detecting CSA in their children. Causes and patterns of sexual assaults against children Not many studies have come up with the actual causes of CSA. Rather, the causes of CSA are observed through the wider context of causes of sexual abuse that happen to both adults and children (Sedlak, et al. 2010, p. 304). The thinking behind this is that all sexual offenders are driven by common factors to committing the offense to children or adults. There may be cases where pedophiles have emotional drives that make children easy prey but they as well are found in the general cases of sexual abuse. Its important to note that this section does have clear links between social and criminal just ice systems and their failures that lead to breeding of CSA offenders. These causes vary greatly and range between nature vs. nurture factors that involve biological factors e.g. physiology, drug abuse and psychopathology and environmental factors that include gender roles, motives behind pursuit of power, social learning and social dynamics involving relationships. One of the causes of sexual abuse is physiology and neurophysiology of human beings. In the bodies of CSA offenders are hormones and other chemicals that are imbalanced hence give the offender uncontrollable desires to molest children (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 176). For instance there is a relationship between testerone levels and aggression which may include sexual abuse. Similarly, head trauma and abnormalities in the human brain may also lead to an effect in hormones and sexual violence. Another factor is alcoholism and substance abuse. There is enough evidence that alcohol and other intoxicating substances lead to physica l aggression (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 178). In the cases of children, CSA offenders may attempt to drug children before actual abuse takes place. A good example is the case involving the late pop star Michael Jackson where prosecutors alleged that he drugged children with wine before sexual abuse took place. Psychopathology and personality traits also account for good number of CSA cases (Briere Eliot, 2003, p. 254). Men and women who have been diagnosed with antisocial personality disorders display psychiatric and disorders that breed coercive behavior, irresponsibility and lack of concrescence. More often than not, many CSA offenders have attitudes and gender biases that for some reason they believe are true. These offenders have myths about rape and children abuse and use the vice as a strategy in resolving problems. For instance there have been reports of men sexually abusing children in some societies with the belief that they will be healed of HIV/ Aids and other ailments. Sex an d power motives also do cause people to commit CSA (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 180). More often than not, men or women who commit CSA have power and anger motives. Many a times these men are reported to have felt rejection from the opposite sex hence the drive to relieve their anger on weaker opponents who most likely are children. In other bodies of knowledge, there seems to be consensus that socio-cultural factors contribute to sexual abuse against children (Douglas Finkelhor, 2005, p. 45). The theories suggest that the societies in which these offenders live in subtly encourage sexual immorality through history and the media that give impetus to offenders. Fro instance numerous communities in the world are known to accept marriage of girls as young as twelve years. The practice more often than not is institutionalized and accepted as normal and men and women who engage it see nothing wrong since they are paying within the accepted standards. Another element of the culture that promotes sexual abuse is the family (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 185). It’s thought that children who grow up in violent families are likely to engage in intimate sexual violence when they are adults. Besides, they may engage in CSA if help is not sough early on. Proposed solutions through the application of information from sociology, law, psychology, ethics It’s important that any solution that is sought to the vice reflects the realities that characterize the social and criminal justice systems that exist in human societies today. The solutions that will be suggested below will be done on the backdrop of the analysis of the social and criminal justice theories and the laws that govern us as enshrined in the US constitution. As earlier said the problem of CSA has reached proportions that had not been anticipated. It’s important that law enforcement agencies are given credit for their efforts in combating crime and social ills such as CSA. However, no one can deny that problem s such as CSA have persisted at a time when law enforcement budgets are stretching both the federal and state governments. Nevertheless, to lay the blame solely on the failure of the criminal justice system will myopic and will not lead to anywhere in the search for a solution. The blame therefore should be share with society as well. There sufficient evidence that social justice is in short supply and people who make up society have been caught up a web of inconsistencies by both systems that crime and other social ills have become a scapegoat (Robinson, 2009, p. 68). Scholars have criticized justice agencies as far as criminology, criminal justice and other related disciplines are concerned. There has been concern that these systems are not meeting their goals especially in achieving justice. Social justice deals with the efforts that have been out in place to ensure equal access to opportunity and good life as defined by the written and unwritten rules of the community. The main function of the criminal justice system is to optimally meet its goals of dispensing justice so that social justice can be achieved. That said, it’s important to note that there are people like CSA offenders who don’t deserve the benefits that are pursued by the systems described above (Robinson, 2009, p. 70). The United States constitution offers every citizen basic freedoms that allow him/her to freely live in the country and do what he/she needs to do to achieve the American dream. Rawls explains social justice through his theory of Justice as equality while Miller put the same contest through the theory of convention and social equality and justice. The US constitution in pursuit of universal liberty and freedom creates the conditions necessary for the realization of the above principles. Rawls says that the systems operate on constitutional essentials and helps establish background institutions that help people in their pursuit of social and economic justice throu gh freedom and equality that is guaranteed by the constitution. In the pursuit of success social ills CSA have come up that have necessitated society, criminal justice custodians and they custodians of the constitution to take a hard look at the situation. The solution for CSA is for the society and authorities to mandate drastic actions that dwell on the inconsistencies that exist in the criminal justice systems and social justice systems and curtail basic liberties of all CSA offenders (Robinson, 2009, p. 75). Curtailment of liberties and other rights under the constitution will take place on the existing guidelines but only on a larger extent than before. The curtailment of freedoms will be done through the ways discuses in the following section. These ways take into account and recommend inclusion of constitutional inconsistencies in addressing CSA. The inconsistencies include enforcement of biased laws by the police and the courts and the correctional agencies, unequal access t o defense by the suspected offenders as well as unequal application of sanctions and punishments by the correction agencies. There also should be elimination of plea-bargaining for suspected CSA offenders and determinate and mandatory sentencing by the courts of the people suspected to have committed CSA. Within the severely restricted environment where the offenders will be operating, mandatory medical and mental treatment will b accorded to the offenders as well as experimental community reintegration and supervision. Correctional facilities should also be enabled to limit access to satisfy needs by CSA offenders in their custody. The second part of the solution will entail increasing the efficiency of the monitoring and reporting systems that are in place. The fact that over 80% of cases go unreported means that many of the offenders are still walking free in the community. Therefore enhancing the criminal justice systems to easily facilitate reporting and speedy arrest will comp lement the curtailing of freedom that in the combat of CSA. The measures will discourage offender from committing the offenses again awhile at the same time acting as a deterrent for the would be offenders. Because the legal justice system supersedes all other systems, it should be designed in a way that ensures the above is implemented through the following categories of solutions (Hanson, et al. 1999, p. 56). Legal/ Justice Solutions They are referred to as tertiary measures which normally apply after the actual crime has taken place (Hanson et al. 2002, p. 208). Proponents of orthodox approaches don’t advocate for this approach because they reason the damage has already been done by the time a person is taken to court. That is why the approach of drastic curtailing of freedom and basic liberties for the CSA offenders comes in handy. Moreover the public and policy attention that these strategies will command will go a long way in deterring would be offenders from committing the offence. Looked at from a different perspective the drastic measures suggested above will ensure primary prevention of the vice through theoretically the deterrent factor will be implemented through fear of sure and serious punishment by the justice system. The above likely effect coupled with the statistics that show CSA offenders not likely to commit the offense again will effectively curb child sexual abuse. One of the factors informing the above drastic justice measures is the fact that many child sexual molesters are likely to be educated people rather than criminal who specialize in the offence. The fear of losing a good life that is defined by education and status is likely to deter these â€Å"undercover† molesters. Lifetime incarceration for CSA offenders is unlikely to work in that face of the reduced freedoms accorded to criminals and suspected criminals. The drastic criminal justice policy that suggested above will accept albeit sparingly the reintroduction o f offenders into the society still with reduced liberties and increased monitoring through registration systems that will keep track of their activities. In essence the drastic plan proposes â€Å"caged freedom† from the released offender. They include offender registration, mandatory registration, residency restriction and civil commitment and sentence lengthening. Offender registration Currently all states have offender registries that are electronic. The systems allow for raid apprehension of the offenders incase recommitment of the crime any crime related to CSA (John, 2005, p. 87). Some advocates have argued that requirement that the offenders wear electronic surveillance chops affects their reintegration to society and violated the rights of the offenders who have already served their terms. After the implementation of the registration in late 1990’s studies that followed suggested little drop in the sex related crimes. This was moistly attributed to non-complian ce on the part of the offenders. In some states the rate of sex crimes especially on children remained the same while in one state-California it went up that is why the drastic plan suggested above will be seeking to legalize the implantation of electronic surveillance chips into the bodies of offenders up to the time when the authorities feel one is in a apposition not to commit the offence again Community notification This provision acts on the basis of the Megan law of 1996 that informs of neighbors and other interested parties of the whereabouts of a released offender. Community notification while it aims to protect neighbors and people around offenders, will be seeking to isolate the offenders till they decide to seek reintegration through expression of remorse. In the suggested solution some requirements for the offender to end his/isolation will include volunteering to educate his/her community on CSA and the implications it carries for the victims. The drastic plan will dema nd that the offender shows some initiative towards reintegration upon release in any form of deviant behavior will result into incarceration without the basic rights as outlined earlier on. Mandatory background checks Mandatory background checks have almost become the norm in organizations when applying for work or volunteer positioning organizations. Many employers have relied on public registries for information on potential employee’s criminal records. The main reason for these checks will be to bar dangerous people with a record of molesting children from serving in positions where they can easily commit the offence again. The measures outlined earlier will go further and suggest that guidelines be introduced that will limit the types of jobs that a released offender should be allowed to apply for. They guidelines should be specific that the offenders should never be employed in situations where they come to private contact with juveniles either directly or indirectly. Re sidency Restriction Residency restrictions exist in many states and localities. The statutes that have introduced the laws are specific where released CAA offenders can visit. The main aim to prevent them from getting closer to areas frequented by children. These areas include daycare centres, churches, and schools. The law is already drastic as it is. It has been reported by sex offender management authorities that released sex offenders have difficulty securing descent residences owing to the fact that they are classified as CSA’s. However, the measures outlined earlier should include among other restrictions the possibility of offenders loosing some of their rights as citizens of the state if they are convicted and if they don’t show any progress towards reintegration and reformation. The threat to deny them basic state rights will be a big deterrent to the would be offenders and the released one who are likely to engage in the ice again. Sentence Lengthening and Ci vil Commitment This involves meting out of long prison sentences to sex offenders. Though many states have increased the length of prison terms for sex offenders there is need within the proposed solution of drastic measures to include a life sentence for offenders who show no remorse or who may be determined through assessment to be danger to the community. Already some states still hold offenders they deem dangerous even after the completion of their term in prison. Possibility of life in prison without parole for sex offenders will rid the community of the dangerous elements and CSA crimes will considerably reduce. Enhanced reporting, detection and arrest It’s important that law enforcement put in place mechanisms that will nab free CSA offenders. The programs will entail elaborate measures that will be available to vulnerable groups and interested parties like parents that will enable them report crimes relating to CSA. Psychological solutions Mental health treatment Many CSA offenders have been found to mentally unstable. Psychological solutions including therapeutic treatment will be recommended. However, even then, they will still some basic freedom that they may be enjoying currently. This is to deter people who may be of sound mind from committing CSA offenses and feigning mental instability afterwards. Mental treatment will be provided but within the confines of the drastic solution measurers as may be applicable. Sociological solutions Community Prevention of Offending Community prevention offending will be taking place within the proposed framework where there will be reduced liberties for CSA offenders in both the criminal justice and social justice systems. There is the possibility of that the free CSA offenders may not one caught due to one reason or the other. There is therefore need to launch programs that will utilize the proposed measures to encourage offenders who need help to come forth. The programs will promise help to the offende rs who freely confess and exemption to some extent from the drastic measures that caught CSA offenders will go through. The CPO programs will work with law enforcement and community organizations and may involve establishment of confidential lines where the offenders will call and can be counseled anonymously. Efforts will be, made to detect the addresses of the offenders though no arrests will be made. They offenders will be urged to surrender in return for the above promised treatment from authorities. Within the drastic measures, policy makers should consider introducing mandatory education to parents and other stakeholders on ways of identifying sexual offenders and ways thorough which on can tell that a child has been sexually abuse. Currently, taking the courses is not mandatory, but voluntary for those that want to do so. Moreover, it’s not paid for by the state. Requirements will also from local authorities to run adverts to that effect. Ethical solutions In many prof essions there is normally a code of conduct that governs the behavior expected of each member. Client privacy is highly regarded in the professions especially in the medical field. While its requirement by the law that every citizen report crimes he/she witnesses. Very often these professionals do come in contact with lawbreakers including CSA offenders who confess of their crimes. While they are required by law to report the crimes, they are also bound by the code of ethics that may equate such exposure to breach of doctor patient confidentiality. The dilemma that the professionals find themselves in does little to help in combating CSA offenses. It’s important to note that professionals in this fields are in custody of critical information that can lead to the arrest and incarceration of CSA offenders. Reconciliation of standard and legal requirements to aid reporting One of the ways to address the above problem is through a reconciliation of the standard practice and legal requirements to allow professionals who would want to report such crimes to do so. In fact when the drastic measures are solution is considered, the professionals will be required to report any such occurrence so that the course of justice can take place. It can be argued that ethics will entail being true to what the society believes in right. Therefore reporting of crimes including CSA will be an obligation of any professional who comes across any in the course of practice. The laws will be seeking to propose penalties for professionals who may not adhere to the requirements. Conclusion The solution and the components under it were developed with the sole aim of enhancing community and victim safety. After going through the drastic measures that have been outlined above, one may be tempted to ask if they will work. Well there still is need to conduct further research on the issues before actual implementation takes place. However, hypothetically, the measures are bound to produce significant results on deterrence and prevention if CSA offenses. One of the assumptions that the solution assumes is the availability of resources that will be committed to implementing the drastic measures. The measures are also aimed at preventing reoffending hence the proposed strict incarceration and denial of basic rights measures. Finally the solutions will succeed if there is sufficient information regarding CSA crimes e.g. facts on incidence, prevalence and victim information. Additionally there should be information on sex offenders and the behaviors that are associated with them. Furthermore, the solution will succeed if there is education on the prevention and risk reduction measures among the population. The authorities should also while implementing the solution ensures there is enough information on the availability of resources for victims’ families and communities affected by the vice. Finally there should be social campaigns that promote responsible behavio r to promote respectful interaction between people and to minimize the chances of CSA happening. There is no perfect solution to the problem of CSA offenses. However, there is always room for the improvement of the existing laws to accommodate the new trends that the criminal activities like CSA are taking. The solution proposed here seeks to deny offenders and would offenders that every free person values. The assumption is that offenders who have been convicted and released after going through proposed system will lack the will to commit the crime again. Additionally, the proposed solution envisions a situation where would be offenders are deterred from committing any CSA crime given on the face of increased penalties. The solution is drastic in such a way that it seeks the enactment of statutes that will make the implementation of the measures mandatory by the federal and state agencies. References Berkowitz, A. (1992). College Men as Perpetrators of Acquaintance Rape and Sexual Assault:A Review of Recent Research. Journal of American College Health, Vol. 40, 175-181. Briere, J. Eliot, D.M. (2003). Prevalence and Psychological Sequence of Self- Reported Childhood Physical and Sexual Abuse in General Population: Child Abuse and Neglect. Douglas,   E. Finkelhor,D. (2005). Childhood sexual abuse fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.unh.edu/ccrc/factsheet/pdf/childhoodSexualAbuseFactSheet.pdf. Crimes Against Children Research Center. Hanson, R.K., et al. (2002). First report of the Collaborative Outcome Data Project on the effectiveness of psychological treatment for sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 14 (2), 169-194 Hunter, J.A et al., (2003). Juvenile sex offenders: Toward the Development of a typology. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, (2003) Volume 15, No. 1). Hanson, R.F., et al. (1999).   Factors related to the reporting of childhood sexual assault. Child Abuse and Neglect. Pp.i23,559-569). John, Q . (2005). Preventing Sexual Violence: How Society Should Cope with Sex Offenders Washington: American Psychological Association Robinson, M. (2009). Justice blind? Ideals and realities of American criminal justice (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sedlak, A.J. et al. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–4): Report to Congress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. Tracy, V. (2008). The Pursuit of Safety: Sex Offender Policy in the United States. New York: Vera Institute of Justice. This research paper on Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders was written and submitted by user Jason Wilkins to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Comic Books: History and Impact on Society Comic books hold an undeniable significance in modern history. Three aspects of significance include the history of comic books, the use of comics for social commentary, and the cultural impact comics have had on our daily lives. Comic books had humble beginnings, soon they grew into a major threat during Cold War era American society and then became an outlet to hippie counter-culture in the 1960s. The earliest ancestors to comics can be found in caves, little stick men spearing blob-shaped beasts. Rodolphe TÃ ¶pffer is considered by many to be the Father of Modern Comics. TÃ ¶pffer was the first to comment on the interwoven nature that words and pictures held, The pictures without the text, would have only an obscure meaning; the text, without the pictures, would mean nothing (Fingeroth 2008, p. 12). In 1895, Richard F. Outcaults character, the Yellow Kid, was the first successful reappearing comic character. In 1935, Max Gaines found funding to begin reprinting comic serials into paper bound books, or comic books. Through the 1940s and 50s comic books were a main focus of attack for Dr. Fredric Wertham. Wertham claimed that comics were corrupting the morals of kids; this included accusations of Batman an d Robin having homosexual tendencies, that Supermans power of flight distorted a childs understanding of physics, and that Wonder Woman gave young girls the wrong impression of the role of women in society (Coville 1996, para 19). In 1954, the industry responded by instituting the Comic Code Authority (CCA), which handed out seals of approval to comics it deemed passed its strict criteria. This included censoring all gore, any story without a happy ending, and nearly any form of sexuality (relationships had to uphold the sanctity of marriage). Although the CCA had no legal authority, shops wouldnt sell comics without the seal which led to a decline in the comic book industry in profit and creativity. Enter the 1960s and the emergence of the hippie counter-culture. A product of this era was the development of underground comics, or comix, which was a direct reaction to the rules of the CCA and the idea of the institution as a whole. Artists within the underground comix scene focused on adult-themed topics, such as hallucinogen use, pushing sexual taboos and rejecting established views of morality, religion and social class. Two huge influences in the scene include Robert Crumb and Art Spiegelman, whose work could be found in record stores and head shops. In the early 1970s mainstream comic brands started to pick up on these more serious topics, which led to the weakening of the CCA. The 70s also saw a shift in focus amongst comic books, relevance to real life issues became the dominant idea. This led to stories about drug abuse, racial prejudice and a peppering of feminist thought. Ethnic minorities also had more roles in comic books, if still secondary and stereotyped. The 1980s to the present day have seen a shift in comics towards graphic novels, emotionally complex characters with human weaknesses, politically stimulated story lines, gritty dystopian-esque cities and a prevalence of anti-hero protagonists (Coville 1996, para 16-23). The history of comics is so rich in detail that this could be considered just the tip of the iceberg. One thing is clear though; the comic book industry rebounded from serious attacks and became stronger than ever, pushing for personal expression amongst its artists and writers. As made evident by the past 40 odd years of comics, the reflection of real life social issues has been a popular trend. Hot topics that are still relevant to this day include the views of women, LGBT persons and ethnic minorities within society. Women have had a role in comics since their creation. Early depictions of women usually put them in the role of damsel in distress/ plot device or purely as a sex symbol. In 1940, the first true, although mostly unheard of, female superhero was created: Fantomah (Markstein n.d, para 3). Fantomah, along with other early female comic protagonists Wonder Woman and Sheena, fell into the Jungle Goddess category. The role of the female was put in the background with the creation of the CCA. Female characters didnt find a positive voice in comics until the 1980s and 1990s (Felton n.d., para 1). Series such as Love Rockets, Ghost World, and Tank Girl promoted strong portrayals of women, often with feminist leanings dealing with the exploration of se xuality in positive ways and the dismissal of expected roles in society. Gay characters also began to make an emergence during this same period. For example, the series Y: The Last Man toyed with the idea of all the men in the world but one dying off at once. Not only did it take a serious look at the complete reinventing of civilization through the hands of women, it delved heavily into lesbian culture: the views of women as masculine and feminine, theories of dominance and ideas of where man would be in a female dominant society. A more mainstream example would be Batwoman, who was recently written as an openly gay character in the series 52 (Gustines 2006, para 2). Ethnic minorities have been in comic books for the past 100 years, but they were usually given stereotypical, often outright racist, roles with no depth of character. Nowadays there are countless comic book characters of color that are portrayed in the same light as white characters. Examples of this would be superhero es such as Storm, a black woman who was leader of the X-MenÂÂ ­, and Cyborg, black male leader of the Teen Titans. Not to mention nearly the entire cast of Love Rockets who are of Mexican descent. One of the earliest well-known black superheroes, Black Panther, has recently gone through a revival. Reginald Hudlin, Black Entertainment Televisions President for Entertainment, who wrote the new series has stated: The reality is that theres been so few black characters who have their own book, who have been consistently published, let alone a black character who has been written by a black writer and the perspective that comes from that (Gustines 2006, para 7). In closing, the effort being made to turn comics into tools for personal reflection on ones values seems to be growing significantly. Established views are being challenged in a creative format, with people having control in how much they want to expose themselves. Lastly, the cultural impact of comic books on the world is noteworthy; film and television adaptations of comic books throughout the world and their acceptance as literature, the extension of the fictional superhero identity into real-life groups and individuals donning costumes, and the use of comic books to push ideological views has had a resounding effect on society. Though adaptations of comics had been put onto the big screen for many years, Buck Rogers and Flash Gordon serials being prominent, it wasnt until 1978 when the first Superman movie was released that audiences and film makers took it seriously (Booker 2007, pp. x-xi). Superman was extremely popular, and until nearly a decade later it reigned as the most well-known comic movie available. With new progress made into computer-generated imagery (CGI), the trend was ready to take off. Dozens of comic book movies and television shows have been made, a good amount of which arent superhero related, thanks to the nearly infin ite potential of CGI (10 Interesting Comic Book Facts You Probably Didnt Know 2009, para 6). These include classic superheroes such as Batman, Superman and Spiderman that have been replicated and assimilated in foreign countries. Another notable trend is the view of comic books as legitimate literature, such as Art Spiegelmans Maus receiving a special Pulitzer in 1992 and Alan Moores Watchmen being entered into Time magazines 2005 list of 100 Best English-language novels from 1923 to the present (10 Interesting Comic Book Facts You Probably Didnt Know 2009, para 8). By now it can be claimed that superheroes are indeed a part of our society, but some individuals take it one step further. Take for example the New York based real life superhero Terrifica. Terrifica dons a blond wig and red boots, complete with red cape and utility belt at night. Her mission is to prevent drunken women from being taken advantage of by sexual predators, which keeps her mostly in bars and party scenes. Her arch-nemesis, Fantastico, is a full-time seducer of women, whom Terrfica has been known to peel women off of (Robinson 2002, para 4). It sounds like a joke, but there are dozens of real life superheroes in the world. Another is A ngle-Grinder Man, a resident of the London area who travels around at night, in full costume, with an angle-grinder that he uses to cut off clamps he finds on peoples cars. He even has a hotline (Superhero takes on clampers 2003, para 1-4). A far more touching example would be the group who call themselves Superheroes Anonymous. This is a group of costumed heroes who have been walking the streets of New York since 2007, handing out food and support to the homeless (Superheroes Anonymous 2010, para 2). A comic being used as a vehicle for ideology goes way back to the original serialized character, Yellow Kid. Though the premise of Yellow Kid and his colleagues was lighthearted and whimsical in nature, the underlying theme and artistic style of the comic was seen as a critical satire of the severe poverty following the industrial revolution. All the characters were dirty, rag covered, homeless-looking children who poked fun at upper-class customs (McAllister et al. 2001, pp.1-2). J. R obyn Goodman made the observation that throughout popular comics in 1909 to 1914 over 80% of the cartoons reflected anti-suffragist ideology (Goodman in McAllister et al. 2001, p. 9). Topics that have been covered such as the blossoming of underground comix and the progressive feminist/sexual views between the 1960s and current comic books can be seen as forms of ideology being present too. To clarify, comic books as a whole have affected our world culture in profound ways. It can be said that they are engrained in our psyche; through print, film and television they have reached millions and have cemented archetypes and ideologies along the way. By now it should be clear that comic books are here to stay. Even after grievous attacks the medium of comic books has triumphed and made its place in society known. They have grown with us; as children we see the world as black and white, and comics reflected this by depicting battles clearly as good versus evil. As we grow older the shades of grey start to take shape and to mirror this, comics have taken on ambiguous topics and played with our sense of morality. While there are many who have no interest in comic books, its near impossible to find someone who has never heard of Superman, Batman or Spiderman. Yes, comic books truly are a significant man-made facet of civilization.

Neo-malthusian theory Essay

â€Å" Explain the neo-malthusian theory with relevance to the current world situation† The term neo-Malthusianism was first used in 1877 by Dr. Samuel Van Houten, one of the vice- presidents of the Malthusian League. Neo-Malthusian theory is derived from Thomas Malthus’ proposition that limited resources keep populations in check and reduce economic growth. Neo- Malthusianism was not just a campaign in favour of birth control; it was particular perspective on the effects of population on human conduct and behaviour. It tried to justify the growing impoverishment of working people by pseudo-scientific theories of â€Å"absolute over-population, and diminishing returns on the soil†. The neo-Malthusian movement therefore was different from conventional Malthusian position on two counts: it stressed on birth control methods and also identified the working class with the problem of overpopulation. The overcrowded industrial slums were identified as sites of moral deg eneration. However, some key facts on the neo-malthusian perspective must be identified. They believe that everyone can contribute to society, secondly, population increases geometrically and food supply/ subsistence increases arithmetically. Also, they advocated race discrimination and thought that Birth Control, war epidemics are used to promote capitalism and alleviate misery of the masses. In contemporary societies today, it can be observed that there is an existent division of people, whether it may the rich or the poor, financially stable or financially unstable, or most commonly known, The Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat, as mentioned by Karl Marx. Neo-Malthusians strongly believe that all the individuals in society can contribute to society no matter the division and which class they may fit in ( upper or lower class). They did not specifically measure the amount of contributions that each class were able to present but mainly focused on how the contributions of one class was beneficial to the other, (lower to upper), Marx would however argue that the Bourgeoisie only engage in such activities as it is more beneficial to them and it only helps exploit the Proletariat. It can be observed in society today, that the proletariat are exploited through a term called alienation, this is where the proletariat are cut off from consuming the goods they produced. For e.g. sweat shops in China, proletariat are forced to produce goods/services for little to almost no income and after the good has been  produced they are unable to obtain it as it is too pricy. It must be noted that there has been change in society today, as some individuals of the lower class are able to experience upward social mobility, and thus this reinforces the neo-malthusians suggestion that everyone can contribute to society, not only to the benefit of the capitalists but to the proletariat themselves. As it pertains to the population and food supply it can be observed that in societies today, 3rd world societies to be specific, the food supply to population ratio is quite uneven. The Neo-Malthusians, who agree with Malthus, would not only argue that this is due to the population growing at a faster rate than the food supply but this is due to the drainage of resources. As it known, that the world has limited resources, and they would argue that these limited resources help keep population in check. They state that population increases geometrically and food supply/ subsistence increases arithmetically. Subsistence in this instance may be defined as â€Å"just enough† for human survival. As it pertains to the process where resources become exhausted, it can be noted that in many third world countries of the Caribbean (Antigua, Dominica) , Agriculture is used as a major source of income, however due it being done over and over the soil is ripped of it nutrients which is needed to help grow various crops. Even some simple resources are becoming scarce to societies today. For e.g the current situation in Antigua and Barbuda, where the population there are currently experiencing a shortage of portable water even though water by itself is there in abundance. Even though they have the technology to produce such resources they are in no economic position to maintain the technology. However, critics may argue that there are mechanisms put in place to help sustain goods(food). Namely, the increase in prices of various products (inflation), they would state that this could cause indivi duals of the population to purchase/consume smaller quantities of different goods and would therefore cause the ratio of population growth and food supply to turn towards a more even figure. However, the neo-Malthusians may however argue that this doesn’t help the problem of excess population growth since the individuals who produce most of the population (lower class) would not be able to afford these goods. The socialists consistently maintained that the hue and cry over population was a way to divert the focus from the core issues of inequality and class struggle. For the socialists, the real issue  was unequal access to resources than rising population. According to them, there was enough for everyone, provided resources are shared equally. The problem lay in the lack of equal distribution, with the bourgeois and the propertied class unwilling to give up the large share of resources under their control. As noted The neo-Malthusian movement was different from conventional Malthusian position on two counts: it stressed on birth control methods and also identified the working class with the problem of overpopulation. The overcrowded industrial slums were identi fied as sites of moral degeneration. This diverted the debate on population from issues of poverty and unequal access to resources, to birth control per se. In fact, the assumption was that access to commons or availability of resources would give the poor little reason to abstain from having more children. Neo- Malthusianism thereby reinforced the ideology of private property, individualism and capitalism. The neo-Malthusian position found favour with the elite sentiments on the issue of overpopulation. The elite, threatened by the growing numbers of commoners, considered birth control as an important means of checking future conflict over their property. It can be observed that such an argument is true, as in societies today, many individuals seek to install security systems on their homes, cars and other fixed assets, these individuals are usually members of the upper class. They do this as a means to try to prevent members of the proletariat from obtaining their assets. Theft is a common issue in most societies today, one problem can also lead to another, theft to homicide. All of which are blamed on the proletariat as they are unable to provide for their families after they engage in mass reproduction. For example, in third world countries today it is usually children of the poor that drop out of school at an early age that engage in violent activities and are usually beggars at th e side of the street. Paul Ehrlich is a very vocal and prominent neo-malthusian. He wrote the book â€Å"Population Bomb† which warned us of a coming mass starvation because of over-population and pushed population control (abortion and birth control). He encouraged government intervention into the population issue. Lastly the Neo-Malthusians advocated race discrimination, it can be observed in societies today that there is not only a division of class, but also of race and color (Black and White). This may have stemmed from slavery however and is still present in society today. It is usually the blacks who partake  in agriculture and hard labor work while the whites who are in the offices and even though their work may not be as hard they still gain higher incomes. No need to debate as the top three richest individuals in the world today are White. In conclusion, it can be observed that the neo-malthusian theory follows Mathus’ theory that the world’s resources will not be able to support the population at a certain point, and the populati on will turn to chaos, finally resulting in extinction of humans. It indicates a correlation between food and population growth, and lastly they saw abortion and birth control as a way to slow this decreasing resource that the future holds.

Review of Hamlet, performed in the lowry, salford quays Essay

On Wednesday 3rd of November, the A-level drama groups from Queens Park High School went to see a version of Hamlet performed in the Salford Quays Lowry theatre. Directed by Japanese Yukio Ninagawa, he has added Japanese influences into the traditional Shakespearean tragedy. The design of the set used artistic impressionism: The barbed wire represented the conflict present within his mind. As well as this it was a useful medium to cordon certain areas of the stage. The light bulbs also representing conflict, which are regularly used in Shakespearean plays; in this case used (as with the barbed wire) to evince the conflict beginning in Hamlet’s mind. The light bulbs would alight and sway to signify a monologue, and were also a type of imagery demonstrating the mind- the light bulb is commonly used to mark an idea. The doors around the edge of stage were used to replicate the idea of an open space, and gave the stage an incredible sense of vastness. By using these doors and certain lighting, the director was able to indicate different times of day: during the scene with Hamlet and the ghost, the light gradually moved around all of the doors and successfully created the feeling of a rising sun. The costumes worn by some characters appeared unusual; the ghost king (although written to be Norwegian) wore a Samurai costume, and the entertainers wore costumes relating to the native kabuki or no theatre of Japan. Shakespeare would probably have used clowns or a similar type of act to demonstrate the murder of Hamlet’s father. The reason for this stems from the Japanese director, Ninagawa, who used his own culture to influence some aspects of the play. This was interesting when it came to the setting of the play, as it did not tie with the written adaptation which -as mentioned earlier- was supposed to be based in Norway, and there were no references to this. Other costumes were used well to represent different circles within the play- royalty and those associated were dressed in red: a royal colour. Ophelia and her family originally dressed in white, possibly symbolising purity and truth, until Polonius joins the King and Queen and also dresses in red. Horatio dresses in similar plain black clothing to Hamlet, but wore a blue scarf that could have been used to differentiate him from the royal family. The two scholars that appear at the King’s request both wear grey, high-class outfits and look very much like scholars. The final groups of people to explore are the Polish army, the leader of which wore a very modern leather coat- a mark of high status and power. The major costume changes that occur are when Gertrude asks to speak to Hamlet- at which point she wears a light blue, flowing gown, representing her purity and innocence, and the underwear worn by Ophelia, showing her in a dishevelled and unkempt state. The main sound effects occurred at the beginning of each act; rolling thunder, which accompanied the swaying lights. Music was used namely in the performance by the Kabuki theatre. During Ophelia’s madness, she vocalises some sonnets written by Shakespeare. Songs are also sung by the gravediggers, although they feature only for a short while and do not contribute much to the play as a whole. Overall, the design of the play was well thought out, and the director was able to use the space, lighting, sound and costume to create a well-devised and creative atmosphere. In comparison the setting and design of the play, the acting did not contribute in such an involving way. All characters were able to project their voices, which made the audience able to competently hear what the characters where saying. But emotion and expression were lacking in many of the characters e. g. one of the most well known lines of the play ‘dear Jochum, I knew him well’ -spoken by Hamlet- was rushed and miscued. In a similar way, the characters of the King and Gertrude were greatly over-acted. The actors who demonstrated the best character development and realism were Polonius and Horatio. During the scene where Polonius ‘forgets what he was going to say’, many members of the audience believed that he had forgotten his lines, inducing laughter and amusement; exactly the reaction that Shakespeare intended. Horatio gave an excellent performance at the end of the play, producing ‘real tears’ and a very convincing sadness at the death of his best friend Hamlet. The performances of both of these characters were consistent throughout the play. Due to the barbed wire on the stage, some of the movement seemed restricted, such as the sword fight between Hamlet and Laertes, where it appeared that they accidentally knocked the wire causing it to shake and distract the attention of the audience. The body language of each character was questionable: Gertrude and the King both had over-exaggerated arm movements, whereas Hamlet appeared not to over-use large movements such as pointing and flailing arms. Polonius had an interesting twitch in his right arm, which at first appeared to be nervousness of the actor, but on further investigation, was an intentional manoeuvre used to depict his slightly psychotic character. Ophelia created madness in her character after the death of her father by moving in a lyrical fashion, as though not really aware of her motion – a successful tactic. Directors will use the versatility of the Hamlet script to create different relationships between characters, either successfully or unsuccessfully. Ninagawa made the following choices: The relationship between Polonius and Ophelia was interesting, because although at the beginning of the play Polonius chose to treat his daughter with disdain, Ophelia was quite obviously very disturbed and depressed about his death. This was perhaps conveying the true to life concept that one will love family no matter what the situation. Another relationship including Ophelia is the intimacy between herself and her brother – without knowing the characters, the audience may have been fooled into thinking that Ophelia and Laertes are lovers, as they kiss. The kiss appears to have a romantic nature rather than the kiss the audience would expect within a family kiss. This could result in the audience being ambivalent about the relationship between Ophelia and Laertes. Ninagawa does not pursue the romantic relationship between Ophelia and Hamlet or Claudius and Gertrude, which the audience would expect to see some evidence of- at one point, the actor of Gertrude tried to embrace Claudius who pushed her away, and there was very little contact between Hamlet and Ophelia. Hamlet is an interesting character within himself, showing signs of contempt towards other characters, being indecisive and uncaring. It is within the monologues that the audience is exposed to the real Hamlet, which Ninagawa has chosen to portray as acting madness, as opposed to becoming crazed. The final relationship being considered is that of Hamlet and Gertrude. At the beginning of the play, the actors did not express sort of bond, and the first contact they appear to have is in Gertrude’s closet, where she is moderately sexually harassed by Hamlet. This could have been executed in a much more perverse way, which fortunately the director did not choose to do. The acting in this version of Hamlet leaves a lot to be desired as lines were forgotten, words were misused and the some actors seemed lacking in direction. I feel that having heard the story of Hamlet after having seen the play, there was much that I misunderstood from watching and listening to the characters. Although true to the text, some of the words were spoken without expression and misinterpretation became easy attention lapsed. Having spoken to other audience members, certain key characters became easy to listen to – despite the difficult context – and even enjoy. The set and costume was admired for the provocative nature and was a success in almost all aspects. Overall, the play captured most moments that were significant either with the use of design or the skill of the able and talented actors.